Chambers, Robert. “Participatory Mapping and Geographic Information Systems: Whose Map? Who is Empowered? Who is Disempowered? Who Gains and Who Loses?” The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries. 25.2 (2006): 1-11.

Participatory mapping became commonly used in the 1990s as a way for local communities to manage their own resources. Now with the advent of GIS and GPS, many communities seek to incorporate these new technologies into existing participatory methodologies. Participatory mapping is used for a variety of purposes including natural resources management, social mapping, health mapping, education analysis, water and sanitation access, farm mapping, and prevention of crime mapping, to name a few. Different mapping mediums (for example: ground or paper) will produce different outcomes. Facilitation of participatory mapping is important to ensure ethical approaches that encompass community concerns.

Dunn, Christine, et al. “GIS for Development: A Contradiction in Terms?” Area. 29.2 (1997): 151-159.

This article evaluates the use of GIS for development and contrasts top-down development schemes with participatory management methods. GIS is defined in this review as “a means of evaluating geographical relationships through spatial analysis, database management and graphical display.” It is important to consider technical, data, and organizational issues when accessing the feasibility of implementing GIS in developing countries (or countries with few resources). Technical issues may include evaluation of various software and hardware configurations including propriety and open-source options. Data issues may include understanding a variety of data retrieval options in areas with limited funding or resources.  Organizational issues may include investigating existing GIS infrastructure and pursuing proper training programs, if needed. GIS may be a great benefit to countries with few resources as long local knowledge and local power are maintained in conjunction with proper training and access to resources.

Puri, S.K., and Sundeep Sahay. “Participation through communicative action: A case study of GIS for addressing land/water development in India.” Information Technology for Development. 10.3 (2003): 179-199.

Land degradation and water scarcity are occurring in India at high rates. In response, the government in India has encouraged management of development on the local, watershed scale. This paper uses a case study application of the Habermasian Ideal Speech Situation (IDS) approach to review the implementation of local GIS projects in Anantapur District in Andhra Pradesh.  The IDS approach focuses on identifying the presence of technological dominance and emancipation of associated interests through action and communication. This paper examines the partnerships that exist between scientists, district staff, and community members concerning development management through GIS applications. It was found that participatory processes were used on selected development projects in this district in India. In addition, it was found that the inclusion of “socio-technical” approaches encouraged a greater awareness by district staff of on-the-ground problems facing community members concerning land use and water availability.

Rambaldi, Giacomo, et al. “Participatory Spatial Information Management and Communication in Developing Countries.” The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries. 25.1 (2006): 1-9.

This article provides an overview of the benefits and challenges of applying Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) in developing countries. PGIS is a combination of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods, which began in the 1980s, and geo-spatial information technologies and systems (GIT&S), which became popular in the 1990s. During utilization of PGIS methodology, participation of community members is a key function. It is important to use GIS to visualize indigenous spatial knowledge (ISK) as a starting point to facilitate communication in the originating communities. There are a variety of ways that community members may use GIS and ISK including: management of lands, cultural preservation, governance, education and outreach, or for social/environmental justice purposes. Mapping tools include those as simple as ephemeral maps drawn on the soil to those as complex as 3-D maps created on a computer. It is important to be aware that PGIS, like all participatory research methods, runs the risk of being commandeered to serve the interests of local Elites. Thus, this would negate the true purpose of PGSI being used for community empowerment.

Sieber, Renee. “Public Participation Geographic Information Systems: A Literature Review and Framework.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 96.3 (2006): 491-507.

Public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) combine GIS with community involvement in public policymaking and help to advance the goals of community organizations. The definition of PPGIS originated at a national GIS meeting in 1996, and has since been renamed participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) by others. This paper reviews four central themes in PPGIS: place and people, technology and data, process, and outcome and evaluation. It is important to note that PPGIS methods are influenced by the location of implementation: cultural characteristics, context of situation, stakeholders participating, and the general public. Technological factors such as availability of GIS technology, data accessibility, quality of information, and representation of knowledge will affect the success of any PPGIS project. The process used to implement a PPGIS program should ensure long-term sustainability and broad public participation.  Finally, goals should be set for any PPGIS project and outcomes evaluated to guarantee community principles are achieved.

Fasona, Mayowa, et al. “An appraisal of sustainable water management solutions for large cities in developing countries through GIS: the case of Lagos, Nigeria.” Sustainable Water Management Solutions for Large Cities. (Proceedings of symposium S2 held during the Seventh IAHS Scientific Assembly at Foz do Iquaqo, Brazil, April 2005). IAHS Publication 293, 2005.

This study reviews the feasibility of applying GIS to manage water supplies in municipal areas in developing countries through a case study of Lagos, Nigeria. Water supply and distribution to urban areas is managed solely by the individual states of the federation in Nigeria.  In order to develop an applicable GIS framework for management of water in Lagos, it is important to first quantify current and future estimated water use and population forecasts. After this information is obtained, it is suggested that a GIS framework be developed to create spatial information to identify all water distribution pipelines and water mains, properties in the city, administrative divisions in the city, areas of private sector participation in the city, location of water production points, and areas of ground water monitoring stations.

Luijten, J.C., et al. “A role for GIS-based simulation for empowering local stakeholders in water resources negotiations in developing countries: case studies for two rural hillside watersheds in Honduras and Colombia.” Water Policy. 5 (2003): 213-236.

This study applied a GIS and simulation modeling methodology for understanding water availability and water security to two watersheds in Honduras and Columbia. This methodology hosted initial participatory planning workshops to gage current problems the two chosen watersheds. Next, GIS and simulation modeling were utilized to predict future alternatives in the two chosen watersheds. Stakeholder participation was encouraged in creating and analyzing the future scenarios. Finally, the study found that surface water availability and location varied throughout the year, and also from one year to the next, recharge to streams occurs in various locations, access to water is determined upon location, and that dams might be an option to supplement irrigation water without downstream impairment.

Mende, Andreas. “Strategy for groundwater management in developing countries: A case study in Northern Costa Rica.” Journal of Hydrology. 334.1-2 (2007): 109-124.

This article detailed the development of a GIS, in northern Costa Rica, to provide information about groundwater (aquifer locations, groundwater well locations, geologic composition, and existing land use) in the region. ArcView was used for initial data input and analysis, and a 3-D model was created using 3D-Modeller RHINOCEROS (R) – NURBS. ArcView was used for final analysis of the three-dimensional model. The final analysis input a variety of parameters to assess the vulnerability of aquifers in the region. A map was created that visualized land use, areas at-risk for groundwater contamination, and areas at-risk for aquifer overuse.

Carrera-Hernandez, J.J. and S.J. Gaskin. “The groundwater modeling tool for GRASS (GMTG): Open source groundwater flow modeling.” Computers & Geosciences. 32 (2006), 339-351.

This paper evaluates a ground water model application developed for the Open Source Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS).  This application was created in GRASS and integrates MODFLOW, an existing groundwater flow model. Two trial cases were studied: 1) a steady state one-layer unconfined aquifer, and 2) a steady state two aquifer system with three layers. The results obtained from the open-source version ground water model application for GRASS were equivalent to those obtained by commercial MODFLOW processors.

George, C., and L.F. Leon. “WaterBase: SWAT in an open source GIS.” The Open Hydrology Journal. 1 (2007), 19-24.

This project, called WaterBase, was developed by the United Nations University. Its purpose is to provide free, open source applications for decision management and modeling of water resource issues in developing countries. In addition, WaterBase will provide a compendium of other related materials such as associated websites, training materials, case studies, and a network of partners working on water resource issues. The first stage of WaterBase is the development of an open source mapping tool called MapWindow Soil and Water Assessment Tool (MWSWAT). MWSWAT uses MapWindow to utilize the tool of SWAT which was built to quantify land management practices in large watersheds. At the time of this article, MWSWAT was awaiting release and use by local communities.